Journal of Communicable Diseases (E-ISSN: 2581-351X & P-ISSN: 0019-5138)

Editorial Board

Journal of Communicable Diseases — 2026-06-30

Association of IL-37 Levels with Liver Function Enzymes in a Sample of Iraqi HBV-Infected Patients

Omar Hamid Salman — 2026-06-30

Abstract:

Background: Despite extensive efforts towards its elimination, Hepatitis B virus (HBV) continues to be a major concern, posing risk of liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in those infected. Therefore, there is a need for reliable biomarkers to accurately assess the infection. While liver enzymes remain the standard diagnostic tools, the antiinflammatory and anti-tumor interleukin-37 (IL-37) has emerged as apotential biomarker.
Aims: To assess the relationship between serum IL-37 and liver enzymes in HBV patients.
Methods: Liver enzymes were measured by Fujifilm’s dry chemistry system (Fuji Dri-Chem), whereas Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) was utilized for determination of IL-37 levels. A total of 100 patients (37 females, 63 males; mean age: 42 years) from the Medical City in Baghdad, along with 50 age/sex-matched controls (23 females, 27 males; mean age: 38 years) were enrolled in this study.
Results: The study has demonstrated highly significant variation in TSB, GOT, and ALP (P<0.01) between patients and controls. Additionally, Sex-based differences in TSB and GOT also showed a significant variation (P<0.01), and the diagnostic value was confirmed by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. Furthermore, a high significant divergence in IL-37 levels was observed between patients and controls [P<0.01, IQR: 32.4 vs. 61.4 Picogram/Millilitre (pg/mL), respectively], with ROC analysis supporting its clinical relevance (P<0.01). Also, significant variation was noted in levels of IL-37 in correlation with HBV serological markers, particularly in patients with negative HBsAg and anti-HBcAb (119.8 vs 63.16 pg/mL, respectively)

Conclusions: IL-37, in combination with liver enzymes, may serve as a valuable biomarker panel for monitoring HBV infection

Keywords: Biomarkers; Cytokines; Hepatitis B Virus; IL-37; Liver Enzymes

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/0019.5138.202623

How to cite this article:
Salman O H, Al-Azzawi R H. Association of IL-37 Levels with Liver Function Enzymes in a Sample
of Iraqi HBV-Infected Patients. J Commun Dis.2026;58(2):1-8.

Comparative Evaluation of Serological and Molecular Techniques for the Diagnosis of Leptospirosis in a Tertiary Care Centre

Visuvasam Joshua — 2026-06-30

Introduction: Leptospirosis is a common bacterial infection, passed from animals to humans around the world. It presents with a wide range of symptoms. These can mimic other infections like dengue or typhoid, malaria and influenza. Hence, lab testing is required for diagnostic confirmation and initiation of early treatment which can be lifesaving, in some instances. Often, serological methods like IgM ELISA, rapid Immunochromatography, or molecular methods like PCR are used for laboratory diagnosis. The gold standard test, Microscopic Agglutination Test (MAT), is available only in reference laboratories.
Aim: To compare the diagnostic accuracy and utility of common serological tests in practice for diagnosing leptospirosis, such as Rapid IgM (Immunochromatography), IgM ELISA, real-time PCR, and Microscopic
Agglutination Test (MAT).
Methodology: Blood samples were collected from 208 patients presenting with fever, accompanied by headache, myalgia, or conjunctival suffusion, between December 2022 and June 2024 at a medical college hospital. All samples were tested by Rapid Leptospira IgM, Anti-Leptospira IgM ELISA, serovar-specific MAT, and Leptospira Real-time PCR. The diagnostic accuracy of each method was studied by comparing it with MAT, the
gold standard reference test.
Results: Among the 208 samples, 46 (22%) were IgM ELISA positive, 30 (14.4%) were MAT positive, 19 (9.33%) were real-time PCR positive, and 5 (2.4%) were positive by rapid IgM. The most prevalent serovar was Leptospira grippotyphosa with 50 % positivity. 208 samples tested, when compared against the reference gold standard MAT, IgM ELISA showed a sensitivity of 100% with a specificity of 92% whereas rapid IgM Immunochromatography demonstrated a low sensitivity of 17% with a higher specificity of 100%.
Conclusion: The Leptospira IgM ELISA method can be an effective screening tool for diagnosing leptospirosis, and samples positive by IgM ELISA should be confirmed with MAT or real-time PCR.

Keywords: Leptospirosis, Immunochromatographic Test, Microscopic Agglutination Test, Igm Elisa, Weil’s Disease, Bacterial Zoonosis

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/0019.5138.202624

How to cite this article:
Joshua V, Dhanapaul S, Shanmugam P, Appadurai M. Comparative Evaluation of Serological and
Molecular Techniques for the Diagnosis of Leptospirosis in a Tertiary Care Centre. J Commun Dis. 2026;58(2):9-16

Correlation Between the Exou/Exos Genotype, Biofilm Formation, and Antibiotic Resistance in Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Isolated from Burn Wound Infections

Maryam Ali Raouf — 2026-06-30

Introduction: Pseudomonas aeruginosa is widely recognised as theprimary etiological agent for serious infections in burn patients worldwide.
Objective: To examine the frequency of the exoU/exoS genotype in clinical isolates of P. aeruginosa obtained from burn wound infections in Iraq and its correlation with antibiotic resistance.
Methodology: 80 P. aeruginosa isolates were obtained from patients diagnosed with burn wound infections in Iraqi hospitals. The isolates were initially identified by biochemical methods and subsequently confirmed by molecular techniques. Conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to detect the exoU/exoS genotype. Antibiotic susceptibility was determined by the disc diffusion method, and biofilm production was assessed by the microtiter plates method.
Results: This study found four distinct genotypes in burn wound infections, with substantial differences (P < 0.001). Most P. aeruginosa isolates form biofilm (96.25%; 77/80) at different intensities, with significant differences (p < 0.05) and a statistically significant correlation with an (exoS+\exoU-) genotype. The (exoS+\exoU+) genotype was more antibiotic-sensitive. While the (exoS-\exoU+) genotype was more
antibiotic-resistant than other genotypes. The genotype exoU+\exoS- correlated significantly with fluoroquinolone antibiotic susceptibility, resulting in substantial resistance rates against ciprofloxacin and
levofloxacin. While the genotype exoU+\exoS+ showed a statistically significant correlation with susceptibility to cephalosporin antibiotic groups (ceftazidime and cefepime), the sensitivity rate was higher
than other genotypes.
Conclusion: These results suggested that genotype influences antibiotic resistance, posing a concern, as horizontal gene transfer of the exoU gene can increase antibiotic resistance in P. aeruginosa.
Keywords: Pseudomonas Aeruginosa, exoU/exoS Genotype, Type III Secretion System, Burn Wound Infections, Biofilm Formation

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/0019.5138.202625

How to cite this article:
Raouf M A, Auhim H S. Correlation Between the Exou/Exos Genotype, Biofilm Formation, and
Antibiotic Resistance in Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Isolated from Burn Wound Infections. J Commun
Dis. 2026;58(2):17-27.

Descriptive Study to Assess the Awareness of Tuberculosis and Adherence to DOTS Therapy Among the Tuberculosis Patients In A Selected Community, New Delhi

Uzma Anjum — 2026-06-30

Tuberculosis is an infectious bacterial disease caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis. According to, the WHO, in 2022, an estimated 10.6 million people fell ill with tuberculosis (TB) worldwide. Tuberculosis is a
preventable and treatable disease. Proper DOTS therapy has an important role in the treatment of tuberculosis. The main purpose of this study was to assess the awareness of tuberculosis and adherence to DOTS therapy
among the tuberculosis patients in a selected community, New Delhi.
A quantitative approach with a non-experimental descriptive research design was used for this study. A structured questionnaire was used for data collection among tuberculosis patients who were 18 Years
and above from a selected community, New Delhi. The sample size was 140 tuberculosis patients, and the sampling technique used was a non-probability purposive sampling technique.
The findings of this study showed that the majority of subjects (52.85%) were partially aware, (22.85%) were fully aware and (24.28%) were not at all aware about the disease. The study also elucidates that the majority of the patients, i.e., (68.57%), were non-adherent to DOTS therapy; (25%) showed partial adherence; and only (6.42%) showed complete adherence, respectively. Though the population are partially aware of the disease tuberculosis, their adherence to DOTS therapy is not satisfactory. It was also observed that misconceptions regarding the disease still exist amongst the study population. There is a need to provide essential knowledge about tuberculosis to the general population, and stress should be laid upon making the population adherent to DOTS therapy to increase the effective outcome of the therapy.
Keywords: DOTS Therapy, Adherence, Awareness

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/0019.5138.202626

How to cite this article:
Uzma A, Bhattacharya S. Descriptive Study to Assess the Awareness of Tuberculosis and Adherence to DOTS Therapy Among the Tuberculosis Patients In A Selected Community, New Delhi. J Commun Dis. 2026;58(2):28-36.

Forecasting Malaria Eradication: A Regression-Based Time Series Analysis of Malaria Cases in Odisha, India

Saumyasree Pradhan — 2026-06-30

Introduction: Malaria remains a significant public health challenge, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions, where it contributes considerably to global morbidity and mortality.This study aims to analyze
the incidence of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax malaria cases from 2010 to 2024 in Kalahandi district using regression-based time series forecasting models to evaluate progress toward malaria
elimination.
Materials and Methods: Secondary data on malaria incidence were collected from the National Centre for Vector Borne Diseases Control(NCVBDC) and the National Centre for Vector Borne Diseases Control (NCVBDC). Using Microsoft Excel and SPSS, linear regression and polynomial regression models were applied to evaluate temporal trends and forecast future caseloads of P. falciparum and P. vivax. Model performance was assessed using R² and RMSE values.
Results: From 2010 to 2024, there was a significant reduction in the number of P. falciparum and P. vivax cases in Kalahandi. Regression analysis indicated a strong negative trend in malaria incidence, with linear and polynomial models showing high R² values, suggesting good model fit. Forecasts indicate that if current trends continue, malaria cases may reach elimination targets in the near future.
Conclusion: The application of regression-based time series forecasting reveals encouraging trends toward malaria elimination in Kalahandi.
Continued investment in surveillance, vector control, and targeted interventions in high-risk populations is essential to sustain and accelerate progress. The methodology demonstrated in this study can be replicated
in other high-burden districts to guide data-driven public health planning and policy.
Keywords: Malaria, P. falciparum, P. vivax, Forecasting, Regression Analysis

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/0019.5138.202627

How to cite this article:
Pradhan S, Panda S R, Kund N, Hota R N, Goswami S, Palai S K. Forecasting Malaria Elimination:
A Regression-Based Time Series Analysis of Malaria Cases in Odisha, India. J Commun Dis.2026;58(2):37-46.

From Febrile Illness To Multiorgan Dysfunction: Expanding The Clinical, Biochemical And Epidemiological Spectrum Of Scrub Typhus — A 12-Month Retrospective Study

Praveetha C — 2026-06-30

Background: Scrub typhus is caused by Orientia tsutsugamushi and transmitted to humans through the bite of infected larval trombiculid mites (chiggers). It is an underdiagnosed cause of acute febrile illness in India, as it presents with nonspecific manifestations and resembles other tropical infections. If not recognised early, scrub typhus can progress to severe complications, including multiorgan dysfunction and death.

Objectives: To evaluate the demographic profile, clinical manifestations, biochemical abnormalities, complications and outcome of patients suffering from scrub typhus in a tertiary care hospital.

Methods: The study was carried out in the Department of Microbiology, Saveetha Medical College, Chennai, from January to December 2025. Patients of all ages presenting with acute febrile illness and positive for
scrub typhus by IgM ELISA were enrolled in the study. Serum samples were subjected to IgM ELISA using the Scrub Typhus DetectTM IgM ELISA Kit (InBios).

Results: Of 2566 samples, 193 (7.5%) were positive. Males accounted for 52% and females 48%. Most cases were aged 41–60 years (35%) with a statistically significant difference across age groups (Chi-square
test, p < 0.0001). Seasonal peaks were observed in December (17%) and January (15%). Fever was predominant (94.8%), followed by cough (32.6%), chills and rigour (30.6%), vomiting (28%), myalgia (24.9%), abdominal pain (23.3%) and headache (22.8%). Eschar was observed in 7.3%. Laboratory abnormalities included liver dysfunction (78%), electrolyte imbalance (60%), thrombocytopenia (35%) and renal dysfunction (24.4%). Comorbidities were present in 34%, mainly diabetes and hypertension. Complications included ARDS (9%), septic shock (7%) and AKI (3%). Mortality was 2.6%, and 97.4% recovered after treatment.

Conclusion: Scrub typhus remains an important cause of acute febrile illness in endemic areas. Early diagnosis
enables timely treatment and reduces complications and mortality.

Keywords: ELISA –Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay; ARDS – Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome; AKI – Acute Kidney Injur

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/0019.5138.202628

How to cite this article:
Praveetha C. From Febrile Illness To Multiorgan Dysfunction: Expanding The Clinical, Biochemical
And Epidemiological Spectrum Of Scrub Typhus — A 12-Month Retrospective Study. J Commun Dis. 2026;58(2):47-54.

Genetic Variation Detection of XmnI rs7482144 in Patients with Major and Minor Beta-Thalassemia Infected with B19 and HHV6

Esraa Abdulhaleem — 2026-06-30

Immunological Characteristics of Acute Respiratory Viral Infections in Infants and Young Children

Madina Mambetova — 2026-06-30

Abstract

Introduction: Acute respiratory viral infections (ARVIs) are a leading global cause of pediatric morbidity and mortality; however, data for Kyrgyzstan remain scarce due to limited diagnostics. This study characterized the clinical features and immunological changes in hospitalized children with ARVI according to disease severity.

Methods: In this observational study conducted between 2020 and 2023, 97 children were enrolled based on a clinical ARVI diagnosis; those with immunodeficiency, chronic disease, immunosuppressive therapy, or incomplete data were excluded.

Results: Severe ARVI predominated (64%), with pneumonia (51.5%) and respiratory failure (42.2%) as the most common complications. Severity correlated with C-reactive protein (r=0.79) and was associated with electrolyte changes and lower protein levels. Leukocytosis was correlated with the length of hospitalization (r=0.3). Severe cases (n=52) versus moderate cases (n=30) showed higher leukocytes (11.66±0.92 vs 8.50±0.38), increased CD3+, CD4+ (1025 vs 607 cells/µL) and CD8+ (656 vs 415 cells/µL), CD4/CD8 index (1.53 vs 1.40), heightened IgG (20.8 vs 17.8 mg/mL), IgA (20.1 vs 1.5 mg/mL), IgM (4.9 vs 1.5 mg/mL) and circulating immune complexes (153.34±7.77 vs 137.9±5.14).

Conclusion: Severe pediatric ARVI showed inflammation and immune activation with dysregulated balance, supporting CRP and immunophenotyping as prognostic tools in cases where virological confirmation is limited.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/0019.5138.202630

How to cite this article:
Mambetova M, Dzholbunova Z, Mainazarova E, Chechetova S, Chyinyeva D, Khalupko E, Uzakbaeva B, Suranbaeva G. Immunological Characteristics of Acute Respiratory Viral Infections in Infants and Young Children. JCommun Dis. 2026;58(2):64-71.

Immunomodulatory Interference of Cordyceps Sinensis With Viral Immune Evasion and Fibrotic Signaling in HPV, HBV, HCV and EBV Associated Cancers

Madhumitha Bhaskar — 2026-06-30

Impact of Previous Covid-19 Infection on Cancer Progression and Occurrence: A Retrospective Study of Different Cancer Types

Ammar B Al-Asadi — 2026-06-30

Background: The possibility of the oncogenic effect of the SARS-CoV-2 infection has become a growing concern owing to its prolonged immune and inflammatory effects. The present study had the objective of testing the hypothesis of whether the presence of a previous COVID-19 infection affects cancer incidence, distribution, and stage of diagnosis.
Methods: A retrospective observational study was conducted on 100 cancer patients with documented previous COVID-19 infection. Data on demographics, cancer type and stage, COVID-19 severity, and the
interval between infection and cancer diagnosis were analyzed and compared with the Iraqi Cancer Registry (2018). Statistical analysis was performed using SAS software, employing Chi-square, t-test, and
ANOVA.
Results: The mean patient age was 52.86 ± 17.45 years; 51% were male and 49% female. Solid tumors constituted 64% of cases, while hematologic malignancies represented 36%. Compared with 2018
national data, leukemia and prostate cancer increased significantly (27% and 14%, respectively; p < 0.001). Advanced stages (III–IV) were frequent in patients with severe COVID-19 (p = 0.0017). The mean interval between COVID-19 infection and cancer diagnosis was shorter among advanced-stage patients (1.84 ± 0.92 years) than early-stage ones (2.18 ± 0.84 years; p = 0.0321).
Conclusion: Patients with previous COVID-19 infections may be associated with altered cancer distribution and stage at diagnosis, possibly due to immune dysregulation and inflammatory sequelae. These findings emphasize the necessity of vigilant cancer surveillanceam chanisms linking SARS-CoV-2 to oncogenesis.
Keywords: COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Cancer, Immune dysregulation,Oncogenesis

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/0019.5138.202632

How to cite this article:
Al-Asadi A B, Hadab M A, Al-Maadhidi J F, Abdulghani M N, Al-Aameri D A, Al-Nuaimi B N. Impact of Previous Covid-19 Infection on Cancer Progression and Occurrence: A RetrospectiveStudy of Different Cancer Types. J Commun Dis.2026;58(2):79-86.

Infection-Microbiome Interactions Integrate With Inflammatory and Metabolic Pathways in Syndrome X: A Multi-Domain Enrichment Analysis

Dr. Arun Rajamanikom — 2026-06-30

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/0019.5138.202633

How to cite this article:
Rajamanikom A, Vadivu N, Rajendiran K, Choudhary A K, Periasamy P. Infection-Microbiome Interactions Integrate With Inflammatory and Metabolic Pathways in Syndrome X: A Multi Domain Enrichment Analysis. J Commun Dis.2026;58(2):87-97.

Leptospirosis: The Relationship Between Rats, Clean and Healthy Living Behavior, and Living Environment Conditions

Didik Sumanto — 2026-06-30

Background: Leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease that remains a public health problem in tropical regions, including Indonesia. Demak Regency, particularly the Sayung 1 Community Health Center (Puskesmas Sayung 1), is an endemic area with a high incidence and mortality rate of leptospirosis. This study aims to determine the relationship between the presence of rats, clean and healthy living behaviours, and environmental conditions with the incidence of leptospirosis.

Methods: An observational, analytical design was chosen, employing a cross-sectional approach. 100 respondents were selected using a purposive sampling technique. Data collection used a structured questionnaire that had undergone expert testing. Bivariate analysis used the chi-square test.

Results: The presence of rats was significantly associated with the incidence of leptospirosis. Most respondents had not fulfilled all indicators of clean and healthy living behaviour, such as waste separation and rat vector control. Furthermore, the physical condition of households is still suboptimal, as evidenced by the low proportion of houses with roofs and ventilation that meet health standards.

Conclusion: Although only the presence of rats proved statistically significant, leptospirosis prevention efforts still require a comprehensive approach encompassing behavioural education, physical environmental improvements, and ongoing vector control. This is crucial in areas with a high risk of leptospirosis transmission.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/0019.5138.202634

How to cite this article:
Sumantol D, Maulidia N C, Chakim I, Mifbakhuddin, Leptospirosis: The Relationship Between Rats, Clean and Healthy Living Behavior, and Living Environment Conditions. J Commun Dis. 2026;58(2):98-104.

Phenotypic and Genotypic Characterisation of AmpC-Producing SPICE Organisms from Clinical Isolates in a Tertiary Care Center

Pyenthamizh — 2026-06-30

Background: AmpC Beta -lactamases are a major resistance mechanism in Gram-negative bacteria, especially SPICE organisms (Serratia, Pseudomonas, Indole-positive Proteus, Citrobacter, and Enterobacter species). Their inducible nature and resistance to cephalosporins complicate treatment, while detection remains challenging. This study aimed to characterize AmpC producers using phenotypic and genotypic methods.
Methods: A prospective observational study was conducted at Saveetha Medical College from August 2024 to January 2025. Fifty non-duplicate SPICE isolates from pus, urine, blood, and respiratory samples were included. Cefoxitin screening followed by the cefoxitin-cloxacillin double-disc synergy test was used for phenotypic detection. Multiplex PCR targeting six AmpC genes (blaDHA, blaACT, blaACC, blaCMY, blaCIT, blaFOX) was performed.
Results: Of 50 isolates, 11 (22%) were AmpC producers. PCR identified blaCMY (45.5%) as the most common gene, followed by blaDHA (27.3%) and blaCIT (18.2%). Three isolates showed phenotypic positivity but no amplification, suggesting uncommon variants. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was the predominant isolate, with pus as the main specimen source (60%).
Conclusion: AmpC producers were detected in 22% of SPICE isolates, with blaCMY being most prevalent. Combining phenotypic and genotypic methods enhances detection accuracy and supports appropriate antimicrobial stewardship

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/0019.5138.202635

How to cite this article:
Pyenthamizh, Bhaumik N, Lavanya. Phenotypic and Genotypic Characterisation of AmpC-Producing Spice Organisms From Clinical Isolates in a Tertiary Care Center. J Commun Dis. 2026;58(2):105-111.

Prevalence and Characterization of Multidrug-Resistant Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Isolates From Pus Samples in a Tertiary Care Hospital in Delhi/NCR

Monika Mogha — 2026-06-30

Skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs) are commonly associated with pus formation and are often caused by opportunistic pathogens such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and antibiotic resistance pattern of P. aeruginosa isolated from pus samples in a tertiary care hospital. Out of the samples analyzed, 40% yielded P. aeruginosa, with higher isolation rates among female patients (57%). The organism showed maximum resistance to Cefepime (45 percent) and Ciprofloxacin (42%). These findings highlight the growing antimicrobial resistance in P. aeruginosa and emphasize the importance of proper infection control practices, sterilization, hand hygiene, and rational antibiotic use.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/0019.5138.202636

How to cite this article:
Mogha M, Payal N, Khandait M, Sharma M. Prevalence and Characterization of Multidrug-Resistant Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Isolates From Pus Samples in a Tertiary Care Hospital in Delhi/NCR. J Commun Dis. 2026;58(2):112-119.

The Impact of CXCL12 rs1801157 Genetic Variation on Viral Skin Infections

Zainab A. Tolaifeh — 2026-06-30

Introduction: Viral skin diseases constitute a significant portion of skin disorders worldwide, encompassing a wide spectrum of illnesses exhibiting diverse clinical manifestations and varying degrees of severity.
A body’s immunity plays a vital role in the elimination of viral infections. The chemokines are a type of cytokine that are considered essential for the regulation of the migration of immune cells during inflammation.
Among these chemokines is CXCL12 that shows pro-inflammatory characteristics and cytotoxic activity. There are many genetic variations in the gene encoding this chemokine, including rs1801157, positioned
in the 3’ untranslated region, resulting in the conversion of guanine to adenine.
Methods: Sixty-one patients with viral skin diseases and 31 healthy individuals were enrolled in this investigation. Patients were categorised into two groups: those infected with human papillomavirus (HPV)
and those with molluscum contagiosum virus (MCV). HPV and MCV infections were clinically diagnosed by dermatologists. The genotype ofthe CXCL12 rs1801157 polymorphism was determined using restriction
length polymorphism analysis on peripheral blood samples.
Results: Patients infected with HPV and MCV ranged in age from 4 to 50 years and from 2 to 64 years, respectively. The male-to-female ratio among infected patients was 1.4:1. A statistically significant association
was found between the A allele of the CXCL12 rs1801157 polymorphism and susceptibility to HPV infection, with carriers of the A allele showing an increased risk of infection (odds ratio = 2.52; 95% confidence interval:
1.18–5.38; p = 0.02). No statistically significant association was observed between this polymorphism and MCV infection.
Conclusion: This investigation proposes that CXCL12 rs1801157 A allele may serve as a possible biogenetic marker of susceptibility to HPV infection and provides insight into the interaction between virus and
host in skin infections.
Keywords: CXCL12, Gene Polymorphism, Skin Infections, RFLP, Viral Warts

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/0019.5138.202637

How to cite this article:
Tolaifeh Z A, Ibraheam I A, Kamil S S, Al-Bermani O K, Al-Dulaimi T H, Al-Hindi Z. The Impact of CXCL12 rs1801157 Genetic Variation on Viral Skin Infections. J Commun Dis. 2026;58(2):120-128.

Polymorphisms in the CD4 Gene and their Impact on Gene Expression in HIV-Positive Iraqi Patients

Mohammed Ibrahim Jaddo — 2026-07-01

Introduction: HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is a retrovirus that targets the immune system, attacking (cluster of differentiation 4) CD4 plus T cells, which is a crucial component of the body’s defense.). CD4 plus T cells, also known as helper T cells, play a crucial role in orchestrating an immune response by sending signals to other immune cells to act against infections. The relationship between HIV and the CD4 receptor is central to the life cycle of the virus. HIV infects the host by binding to the CD4 receptor on the surface of the T cells. This binding occurs through the viral envelope protein (gp120), which attaches to the CD4 receptor. Once bound, the virus undergoes a conformational change, allowing the virus to interact with a coreceptor, usually CCR5 or CXCR4, on the host cell surface. This mechanism orchestrates the fusion of the virus membrane with the host membrane, allowing the viral RNA to enter the cell.

Aim: The aim of this study is to investigate polymorphisms in the CD4 gene and its impact on HIV infection and gene expression in Iraqi HIV patients.

Result: The study aimed to investigate polymorphisms in the CD4 gene and its expression in HIV-positive patients through a two-step molecular analysis. Initially, whole blood samples were collected from HIV-positive patients and controls, followed by genomic DNA extraction using a kit, with quality assessed via fluorometer and gel electrophoresis. Specific regions of the CD4 gene were amplified using PCR, and the products were verified on agarose gel before undergoing Sanger sequencing to identify the SNPs and allelic variations. Subsequently, total RNA was extracted from the blood samples, with its quality assessed similarly. The RNA was converted into cDNA, and quantitative PCR was performed to measure CD4 gene expression levels, normalized to a housekeeping gene, allowing for measurement of gene expression levels between patient and control groups.

Conclusion: Of the 5 SNPs found to be present on the CD4 gene only two were found to have a significant frequency, while only one was found to have a statistical relation with HIV progression. No significance was found between the 5 SNPs and the expression of CD4 in the patients compared to the control group.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/0019.5138.202643

How to cite this article:
Jaddo M I, Utba N M. Polymorphisms in the CD4 Gene and their Impact on Gene Expression in HIV-Positive Iraqi Patients. J Commun Dis. 2026;58(2):176-181.

Amoebic Meningoencephalitis- A Review in the Context of Aggravating Case Incidences in Kerala, India

R Rajendran — 2026-06-30

Amoebic meningoencephalitis (AME), a rare yet deadly infection of the central nervous system, is caused by free-living amoebae found in soil and warmer freshwater bodies such as lakes, rivers, ponds, and swimming pools. The infection manifests in two forms: primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM) and granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE). PAM is typically caused by Naegleria fowleri, and GAE is primarily caused by Acanthamoeba species and Balamuthia mandrillaris, and occasionally by Sappinia pedate. Since 1962, a total of 488 PAM cases have been reported globally. Between 2016 and April 2026, about 345 cases of AME were reported in Kerala, resulting in 82 deaths. The data reveal an alarming recent spike; 2025 alone accounted for over 58 % of all cases and 57% of the fatalities reported during the period under review. The unique agent, environmental, host and medical factors contributing to the near-epidemic rise in AME infection in Kerala have been discussed. Necessary primary and secondary measures essential for prevention and control of AME have also been dealt with in this brief review.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/0019.5138.202638

How to cite this article: Rajendran R, Regu K, Sasi M S, Sharma S N. Amoebic Meningoencephalitis - A Review in the Context of Aggravating Case Incidences in Kerala, India. J Commun Dis. 2026;58(2):129-136.

Bio-Crime and Public Health: Legal and Forensic Perspectives on the Intentional Transmission of HIV and Communicable Diseases

Rajneesh Kumar — 2026-06-30

The conscious spread of infectious diseases, particularly HIV, is one of the most challenging intersections between law, forensics science, psychiatry and public health. In India, the relevant laws are compartmentalised, while Sections 271-272 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), 2023, deal with negligent and malignant acts that are likely to spread infection, while the Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (Prevention And Control) Act, 2017 (HIV & AIDS Act) prohibits discrimination and certain acts (Section 4), imposes a duty to prevent transmission (Section 10), and protects confidentiality with specific exceptions (Sections 8–9); Section 37 prescribes penalties for contravention. The courts have faced this dilemma of striking a balance between these provisions and the right to autonomy in the case of Mr X v. Hospital Z (1998), when prerogatives of confidentiality clashed with public interest. Courts across the world have had different approaches, ranging from R v. Dica (UK, 2004), which held reckless transmission as serious harm, to R v. Mabior (Canada, 2012), requiring disclosure of HIV status even when a person is virally suppressed. For forensic science, it gets more complicated. Although sequencing of the microbial genome and phylogenetic comparisons can
indicate a direct connection between source and victim, they seldom demonstrate criminal intent beyond reasonable doubt. The lack of forensic guidelines and psychiatric evaluations increases the likelihood
of miscarriages, which are already being directed at marginalised groups. This article uses exceptions and putative remedies to critically examine current statutes, judicial solutions, and forensic realities and
argues in opposition against stigma-laden attacks on human dignity.
Keywords: Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), Forensic evidence, HIV & AIDS, Human rights, Intentional transmission, Public health law.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/0019.5138.202639

How to cite this article:
Kumar R, Kaur G, Anand A, Parveen M S, Manu H. Bio-Crime and Public Health: Legal and Forensic Perspectives on the Intentional Transmission of HIV and Communicable Diseases. J Commun Dis. 2026;58(2):137-142.

Emerging Threats in Citrobacter Nosocomial Infections: Mechanisms of Virulence and Resistance

Ramya Ramadoss — 2026-06-30

Citrobacter species, especially Citrobacter freundii, have emerged as important nosocomial pathogens over the past decade. Rising rates of multidrug resistance (including extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs) and carbapenemases) and documented hospital outbreaks have heightened clinical concern. This review consolidates recent literature on the aspects of epidemiology, clinical manifestations, virulence and resistance mechanisms in hospital-acquired Citrobacter infections. Most Citrobacter infections are nosocomial infections,
with urinary tract, bloodstream, and intra-abdominal infections being predominant. Citrobacter species possess multiple virulence factors like adhesins, fimbriae, biofilm capability and Type VI secretion systems
(T6SS), that facilitate colonisation, persistence and host interaction. Intrinsic chromosomal AmpC beta-lactamases and increasing acquisition of plasmid-mediated ESBLs and carbapenemases along with tripartite efflux pumps drive the emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) phenotypes. Environmental reservoirs for Citrobacter species and mobile genetic elements increase nosocomial transmission. Therapeutic management is increasingly challenging with emergence of newer beta -lactam/beta-lactamase inhibitor combinations. Siderophore cephalosporins could be potential inhibitors for carbapenemase-producing isolates, though interpretation of susceptibility testing remains essential. Effective nosocomial infection prevention requires strict adherence to hand hygiene, intubation device care, decontamination of hospital environment, and antimicrobial stewardship. Despite growing awareness, substantial knowledge gaps persist, particularly regarding molecular mechanisms behind virulence, optimal treatment pathways to reduce resistant infections,
and cost-effective surveillance strategies. Citrobacter species is an emerging opportunistic pathogen with a dual challenge of virulence and resistance. This emphasizes the urgency to prioritize genomic surveillance, diagnostics and stewardship-informed therapies to address the clinical and public health impact.
Keywords: Nosocomial infections, Opportunistic pathogens, Citrobacter, Antimicrobial resistance, Carbapenemase

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/0019.5138.202640

How to cite this article:
Ramadoss R, Moovarkumudalvan B, Lakshmanan D, Pradeep J, Bilal M I, Saravanan S K. Emerging Threats in Citrobacter Nosocomial Infections: Mechanisms of Virulence and Resistance. J Commun Dis. 2026;58(2):143-151.

Importance of High-Risk HPV in India: Unravelling Genotypic Prevalence, Advanced Diagnostics, and Vaccination Strategies

Mashila A — 2026-06-30

Background: Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a significant contributor to cervical cancer, with high-risk genotypes HPV 16 and 18 accounting for 70% of cases. Despite the availability of screening and vaccination,
the burden of HPV-related malignancies remains high in India.
Objectives: This review aims to assess the prevalence and distribution of high- and low-risk HPV genotypes across Indian states. It also evaluates current screening techniques, diagnostic advancements, and vaccination
strategies to improve HPV-related cancer prevention.
Materials and Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted using databases such as PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar. Keywords included “HPV,” “Cervical Cancer,” and “HPV
Genotypes.” Studies from 2000 to 2024 were reviewed following PRISMA guidelines. Inclusion criteria encompassed research on HPVprevalence, diagnostic methods, and vaccination programs in India,
while non-Indian and animal studies were excluded.
Results: HPV screening methods in India include Pap smears, HPV DNA testing, and molecular diagnostics like PCR and Hybrid Capture High-risk genotypes, particularly HPV 16 and 18, dominate cervical cancer cases. Southern India exhibits a higher burden, while states like Kerala report lower prevalence. Advanced techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 and Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) show promise for improving diagnosis. Vaccines such as Cervarix and Gardasil provide protection,but awareness and coverage remain limited.

Conclusion: Enhanced HPV screening, early detection using molecular diagnostics, and widespread vaccination
are crucial to reducing HPV- associated cancers in India. Increased public awareness and policy-driven vaccination programs can significantly impact disease burden and prevention strategies.
Keywords: HPV, Cervical Cancer, Screening, MolecularDiagnostics, Vaccination, India

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/0019.5138.202641

How to cite this article:
Mashila A, Pradeep J, Indernath S S, Prabha P, Lavanya L, Balasubramanian M, Sowmya S. Importance of High-Risk HPV in India: Unravelling Genotypic Prevalence, Advanced Diagnostics, and Vaccination Strategies. J Commun Dis.2026;58(2):152-170.

A Complex Infectious Case of Acute Viral Hepatitis A, Hepatic Dysfunction, Severe Dehydration and Jaundice: Diagnostic Way of Approach Towards Clinical Outcome

Tisha Lathia — 2026-06-30

With an emphasis on acute viral hepatitis A and related complications, the study intends to examine the clinical presentation, diagnostic way and management approaches of infectious diseases. Through extensive laboratory testing, imaging and clinical surveillance, a case report of a 21year old male with acute viral hepatitis A, hepatic dysfunction, severe dehydration and jaundice was reviewed. the results showed positive serological testing indicating acute viral hepatitis A, abnormalities consistent with substantial rise of liver enzymes. The instance underlines the value of coordinated diagnostic and treatment techniques as well as the complexity of illness. The findings highlight the viral diseases with vigilance, particularly in environments with low resources. All things considered, the study emphasises on how important comprehensive healthcare methods are for enhancing patient outcomes and tackling complex illness relationships.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/0019.5138.202642

How to cite this article:
Lathia T, Viradiya P, Vanpariya M, Ratanpara S, Sayja A, Dudhrejiya S, Parekh K, Tirgar P. A Complex Infectious Case of Acute Viral Hepatitis A, Hepatic Dysfunction, Severe Dehydration and Jaundice: Diagnostic Way of Approach Towards Clinical Outcome. J Commun Dis. 2026;58(2):171-175.