Epidemiology International (E-ISSN: 2455-7048)

Use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Medical Writing: Necessity or Convenience

2026-08-31T12:33:27+00:00

Just recently, as part of the curriculum, undergraduate MBBS students were assigned to prepare a seminar and a presentation. While going through the seminar, it was observed that:

The content was good, but lacked technical details and didn’t seem to come from a standard textbook.

The language of the seminar was very polished, not what was expected from that particular student.

Insulin Resistance in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Pathophysiology, Risk Factors, and Clinical Implications—A Comprehensive Review

2026-09-25T09:53:33+00:00

Several physiologic, hormonal, and molecular processes contribute to the emergence of hyperglycaemia during pregnancy. Increased insulin resistance is seen during the course of a healthy pregnancy. During the early stages of normal pregnancies, the pancreatic beta-cells secrete more insulin, which slows the rise in plasma glucose levels. This regulation explains the abnormally modest increases in plasma glucose levels brought on by elevated insulin resistance. The aim of this review was to evaluate the role of insulin resistance in gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). The authors extensively searched various electronic databases like PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar for the collection of material regarding the role of insulin resistance in GDM. It was seen that hyperglycaemia results from the combination of the pregnancy’s increased insulin tolerance and pancreatic beta-cell insufficiency. Scientific studies have revealed that individuals who present with GDM are more likely to acquire chronic insulin resistance because of the superimposition of lower insulin production by the cells in that condition (GDM). Due to their significance in the development of postpartum diabetes mellitus, inflammation markers in GDM have been widely researched. Inflammation during GDM induces adaptive reactions in the placenta, which can have a substantial effect on the programming of foetal development.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/2455.7048.202612

How to cite this article:

Bhat R, Rather A. Insulin Resistance in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Pathophysiology, Risk Factors, and Clinical Implications—A Comprehensive Review. Epidem Int. 2026;11(3):1-6.

Dry Needling for Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: Current Evidence, Clinical Outcomes, and Therapeutic Perspectives

2026-09-25T10:11:26+00:00

Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is a common condition caused by compression of the median nerve within the carpal tunnel, resulting in symptoms such as pain, restricted movement, impaired hand function, and reduced finger grip strength. Dry needling has been explored as a therapeutic intervention for CTS, with the aim of relieving pain, reducing muscular and neural tension, and improving functional symptoms.

This review evaluated the effectiveness of dry needling in the management of CTS-related symptoms. Relevant studies published between 2000 and 2021 were identified through searches of PubMed, Google Scholar, and Springer. Retrieved studies were screened according to predefined inclusion criteria, and five studies were ultimately included in the review. The primary outcomes assessed across the studies included pain intensity, range of motion, hand function, and grip strength. Overall, the available evidence suggests that dry needling may provide short-term benefits in reducing pain, improving range of motion, and enhancing finger grip strength among individuals with mild-to-moderate CTS. However, the existing literature remains limited, particularly regarding the effectiveness of dry needling for CTS. Although preliminary evidence indicates beneficial short-term effects, further well-designed randomized controlled trials with robust methodology and standardized, clearly described dry needling protocols are required to establish its effectiveness and long-term clinical benefits.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/2455.7048.202613

How to cite this article:
Nwosu C, Adebayo A O. Dry Needling for Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: Current Evidence, Clinical Outcomes, and Therapeutic Perspectives. Epidem Int. 2026;11(3):9-14.

Efficacy of Aerobic Exercise in Reducing Stereotypic Behaviors in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Literature Review

2026-09-25T10:34:52+00:00

BACKGROUND: Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a heterogeneous neurobiological condition that features restricted, repetitive, and stereotypic behaviour, and impairments in social interaction and verbal and non-verbal communication. Autism is caused due to genetic and environmental factors. Autism is classified into five major types: Rett’s disorder, Asperger’s disorder, autistic disorder, childhood disintegrative disorder, and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified. Stereotypic behaviour is involuntary; sensorial self-regulation activities are present in autistic children. Aerobic exercise (AE) is described as a type of exercise that elevates the heart rate and oxygen consumption of the body. It has been seen to cause improvement in an ASD child's physical development, cognitive development, and body composition.

AIM: This article aims to present a review of the relevant literature on the efficacy of aerobic exercises on stereotypic behaviour in ASD children.

METHODS: This review is based on the PRISMA guidelines. The databases used for searching the articles were PubMed and Google Scholar. Inclusion criteria were taken care of while selecting the articles. The articles between the years 2011 and 2022 were selected.

RESULTS: In this review, ten studies were selected according to the inclusion criteria and all these studies showed the effectiveness of aerobic exercise and a decrease in stereotypic behaviour in ASD children.

CONCLUSION: This literature review analysed the efficacy of AE on stereotypic behaviour in ASD children. This study concluded that physical activity, which included aerobic exercise, reduced the stereotypic behaviour of children affected by ASD.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/2455.7048.202614

How to cite this article:
Adawi S A, Sharbati M M A, Zoubi S M A A. Efficacy of Aerobic Exercise in Reducing Stereotypic Behaviors in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Literature Review. Epidem Int. 2026;11(3):15-22.

Efficacy of Balance Training in Improving Postural Control and Balance in Individuals with Down Syndrome: A Literature Review

2026-09-25T11:26:09+00:00

BACKGROUND: A genetic condition known as Down syndrome causes intellectual deficiency, development delay, and typical craniofacial traits. Problems with laterality, visual motor control, reaction time, strength, and balance are common in people with Down syndrome.

PURPOSE: The objective of this research was to evaluate the impacts of exercise training on the strength as well as balance of children with Down syndrome.

METHODS: A literature review using the meta-analyses (PRISMA), with a focus on the years 2007 through 2018, was conducted. PUBMED and Google Scholar are the databases used for article searches.

RESULTS: The recommended exercises were found to be effective in developing the static balance of kids and the static-dynamic balance of kids and teens with Down syndrome.

CONCLUSION: The strength and balance of kids with Down syndrome have the potential to be enhanced with a specific exercise regimen.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/2455.7048.202615

How to cite this article:
Olaleye A O, Akinpelu O A. Efficacy of Balance Training in Improving Postural Control and Balance in Individuals with Down Syndrome: A Literature Review. Epidem Int. 2026;11(3):23-28.

National Tuberculosis Elimination Programme in Nepal: A Review of Progress, Challenges, and Future Directions

2026-09-25T11:37:58+00:00

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major public health challenge in Nepal despite the availability of effective diagnostic and treatment services. Nepal has made important progress through its National Tuberculosis Programme, including expansion of diagnostic capacity, active case-finding, drug-resistant TB management, community engagement and integration of newer diagnostic technologies. The national TB prevalence survey conducted in 2018–2019 provided important evidence on the country's disease burden and demonstrated that a substantial proportion of people with TB may be asymptomatic, highlighting the importance of chest X-ray-based screening and active case finding. More recent programme activities have focused on improving access to diagnosis and treatment, strengthening services for drug-resistant TB and reaching vulnerable and hard-to-reach populations. WHO reported that Nepal had an estimated 68,000 incident TB cases in 2023, while only about 54% were enrolled in treatment, indicating a substantial gap between estimated disease burden and notified/treatment-enrolled cases. In 2024, Nepal expanded the use of the all-oral BPaLM regimen for drug-resistant TB. This review summarizes the evolution, current situation, diagnostic and treatment approaches, drug-resistant TB response, TB-HIV services, active case finding, programme challenges and future priorities of TB control in Nepal.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/2455.7048.202616

How to cite this article:
Adhikari S, Thapa N, Gurung M. National
Tuberculosis Elimination Programme in Nepal:
A Review of Progress, Challenges, and Future
Directions. Epidem Int. 2026;11(3):29-34.

Sarcopenic Obesity: Current Management Strategies and the Role of Exercise Training

2026-09-25T11:52:56+00:00

Sarcopenia is the term used to describe the gradual decrease of muscular mass that occurs with ageing, while obesity signifies the excessive accumulation of body fat (BF) in relation to lean body mass. The combination of increased adiposity and decreased muscle mass and strength defines sarcopenic obesity. In India, the overall prevalence rates of obesity, sarcopenia, and sarcopenic obesity are 27.1%, 41.9%, and 8.7%, respectively. Management techniques for sarcopenic obesity include nutritional interventions, pharmacological interventions, and exercise interventions. Thus, the study aims to raise awareness among the population regarding the condition of sarcopenic obesity and effective management strategies utilizing various types of exercises. Exercise interventions, including high-speed circuits, aerobic training, resistance training, and combined exercise training, have shown positive effects on physical performance, body composition, muscle mass, and functional capacity in individuals with SO. These interventions offer promising strategies for managing sarcopenic obesity and improving the overall health and well-being of older individuals.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/2455.7048.202617

How to cite this article:
Krishnamurthy R, Shetty V. Sarcopenic Obesity: Current Management Strategies and the Role of Exercise Training. Epidem Int. 2026;11(3):35-38.

First report of Deadly bites by Caspian Cobra (Naja oxiana )from India, snakebite envenoming at 1,757 meters above sea-level

2026-09-25T12:02:28+00:00

Snakebite envenoming (SBE) remains a major cause of preventable mortality in rural India.The Big Four species, namely the spectacled cobra (Naja naja), Russell’s viper(Daboia russelii),common Krait (Bungarus caeruleus) and saw-scaled viper(Echis carinatus), are responsible for the majority of SBE and deaths in the country. The commercially available anti- snake venom (ASV) correspondingly covers these species only. Envenomation and subsequent deaths from the Caspian Cobra(Naja oxiana) have never previously been reported from India. While collecting data for the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) project on snakebite, we came across two deaths due to the bite of N.oxiana. One patient died within half an hour of the bite and the other within 72 hrs. Potent cardiotoxicity may be an important factor in the high mortality. We also report on the use of herbal remedies that were used in the case of two survivors of N. oxiana bites.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.24321/2455.7048.202609

How to cite this article:
Bharti O K, Menon J C, Phull A, joy S, Sharma
V, Malhotra A. First Report of Deadly Bites
by Caspian Cobra (Najaoxiana) From India,
Snakebite Envenoming at 1,757 Meters Above
Sea-Level. Epidem Int. 2026;11(3):39-42.